A Begining Of World War 1 - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 1 Words: 382 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/05/16 Category History Essay Level High school Topics: War Essay World War 1 Essay Did you like this example? Ww1 was one of our biggest events in American history,many lives were lost during the war, the war did a lot of damage to both families and to the battlefield, the war lasted for about 4 years. The war actually ended up starting after Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, Heir and his wife Sophie was shot to death on June 28, 1914, this event was the beginning of the first world war. The war was virtually unpredicted in the slaughter, carnage and destruction World War 1 was one of the great watershed of the 20th century political history. It led to the fall of four great imperial dynasties in Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey, it resulted in the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, and in its destabilization of European society, laid the groundwork for World War 2. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Begining Of World War 1" essay for you Create order With Serbia already much aggrandized by two balkan wars 1912-1913, Serbian nationalists turned their attention back on the idea of liberating the south slavs of Austria- Hungary. Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic, head of Serbias military intelligence, was also, under the Alias Apis head of the secret society Union or Death, pledged the pursuit of the pan- Serbian ambition. Believing that the Serbs cause would be served by the death of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Heir presumptive to the empire Franz Joseph, and learning that the Archduke was about to visit the Bosnia on a tour of military inspection, Apis planned his assassination. Nikola pasic, the Serbian prime minister and the enemy of Apsi, heard of the plan and warned the austrian government of it, but his message was too cautious to be understood. At 11:15 on June 28, 1914 in the Bosnasian capital, sarajevo, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, duchess of Hohenberg, were shot dead by a Bonsasian Serb, Gavrilo Princip. The chief of Austrio- Hungarian general staff, Franz, Graf (Count) Conrad Von Hotzendorf, and the foreign minister Leopold Graf Von Berchtold saw the crime as the occasion for measures to humiliate Serbia and so to enhance Austria- Hungarys prestiege in the Balkans. Conrad had already ( October 1913) been assured By William the second of Germanys support if Austria-Hungary should start a preventive war against Serbia. This assurance was confirmed in the week following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, before william, on July 6, set upon an annual cruise to the North Cape of Norway.

Hydraulic Conductivity Soil

Sample details Pages: 31 Words: 9369 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Hydraulic Conductivity Soil Chapter 1 Introduction Hydraulic conductivity or permeability of a soil is one important soil properties used in geotechnical engineering. It can be seen from the difficulty in measuring accurate and reliable values of hydraulic conductivity. Hydraulic conductivity of soil is basically the capacity of water to let water to pass through the pores or voids in the soil. There are many methods developed in order to measure the hydraulic conductivity of soil; both laboratory and in-situ field methods. Some of the common laboratory methods are the constant-head test and falling head test. On the other hand, the common in-situ field methods are pumping well test, borehole tests (e.g. slug test, variable head test), infiltrometer tests and using porous probes (BAT permeameter). All these in-situ field test methods were used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of subsoil for both saturated and unsaturated media. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Hydraulic Conductivity Soil | Engineering Dissertations" essay for you Create order One other in-situ field measurement method that has been introduced is the Two-Stage Borehole (TSB) test, also known as the Boutwell permeameter test. This testing method is commonly used to test a low hydraulic conductivity soil such as compacted clay liner used in landfill barrier system or covers used at waste disposal facilities, for canal and reservoir liners, for seepage blankets, and for amended soil liners. The advantage of using this method is that it can be used to measure both the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity values of soil, kv and kh respectively. One other advantages of using this method is that it can be used to measure the rate of infiltration of water or other fluid into a large mass of soil which can represent the tested site. However, the application of the TSB/Boutwell permeameter test for natural soil or other soils having a higher permeability value has been limited. This report will discuss the theory behind the TSB/Boutwell permeameter test and the application of this method on natural soil. The methodology of this test will also be included in this report. In addition to the standard TSB setup, this report will also discuss the modification made to the standard TSB test which can be easily and quickly installed in shallow boreholes for subsequent testing. The methodology and results from the modified setup will also be included. The results from both the standard and modified setup will then be compared. Objectives The objectives of this project is summarised into four stages. In the first stage, the objective is to measure the hydraulic conductivity of the soil using the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter setup. The second stage involves the modification of the standard TSB/Boutwell Permeameter setup. The aim is to obtain a simple installation setup which can be easily and quickly installed in shallow boreholes for subsequent testing. In the third stage, the objective is to test the modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test in the field. This is done by carrying out a series of tests in varied subsurface media at the assigned site location. The results from both the standard and modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test will be compared. The last stage of the project consists of particle size analysis of the soil obtained from site. The results from the two setups will again be compared to the hydraulic conductivity values obtained from the derivation of the Particle Size Distribution curves. The tasks that are done in this project include: The review of TSB/Boutwell Permeameter methodology Developing the modify TSB/Boutwell Permeameter Completion of field tests using the TSB/Boutwell Permeameter Collection of soil samples and subsequent particle size analysis Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Soil Water Soils are consists of separate solid particles. The pore spaces between the solid particles are all interconnected which mean that water is free to flow through these interconnected pore spaces (Whitlow, 2001). The water will flow from a higher pore pressure point to a lower pore pressure point. The pressure of the pore water is measure relatively to the atmospheric pressure. The level in which the pressure is zero (i.e. atmospheric) is defined as the water table (Craig, 2004). The soil above the water table is assumed to be unsaturated and the soil below the water table is assumed to be fully saturated. The level of water table changes in relation with climate conditions and can also be affected by any constructional operations (Craig, 2004). It is usual to express a pressure as a pressure head or head which is measured in metres of water when considering water flow problems. According to Bernoullis equation, the total head at a point in flowing water can be given by the sum of three head components; pressure head (u/ÃŽÂ ³w), velocity head (v2/2g) and elevation head (Z). This relationship is illustrated in the equation below: (Equation 1) where; h = total head u = pressure v = velocity g = acceleration due to gravity ÃŽÂ ³w = unit weight of water Z = elevation head However, since the seepage velocities in the soil are so small due to the high resistance to flow offered by the granular structure of the soil, the velocity head is often omitted from the equation (Whitlow, 2001). The total head at any point is then can be adequately represented by: (Equation 2) In saturated conditions, the one-dimensional water flow in soil is governed by the Darcys Law, which states that the velocity of the groundwater flow is proportional to the hydraulic gradient: (Equation 3) where; v = velocity of groundwater flow = flow/area (q/A) k = coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity (constant) i = hydraulic gradient = head/length (h/L) The empirical validity of Darcys Law depends heavily on the hydraulic conductivity, k, which must be carefully determined so that it can represent the soil mass (Azizi, 2000). The different practical methods that can be used to measure the hydraulic conductivity will be discussed in Section 2.3. It is important to study the flow of water through porous media in soil mechanics. This is necessary for the estimation of underground seepage under various conditions, for investigation of problems involving the pumping of water for underground constructions, and for making stability analyses of retaining structures that are subjected to seepage forces (Das, 2006). Hydraulic Conductivity (Coefficient of Permeability) Hydraulic conductivity, k, of a soil is the capacity of the soil to allow water to pass through it. The value of hydraulic conductivity is often used to measure the resistance of a soil to water flow. Hydraulic conductivity has units of length divided by time. The most common unit used of measurement is meter per second (m/s). Although hydraulic conductivity has the same unit as those to describe velocity, it is not a measure of velocity (Coduto, 1999). Importance of Hydraulic Conductivity Hydraulic conductivity is a very important parameter in geotechnical engineering or in determining the widespread of contamination. This can be seen in the difficulties in measuring it. This is because hydraulic conductivity can varies from one point in a soil to another, even with small changes in the soil characteristics. It is also, as mentioned in the previous section, influenced by the viscosity and unit weight of the fluid flowing through the soil. Hydraulic conductivity is also dependent to the direction of flow which means that the vertical hydraulic conductivity would not be the same as the horizontal hydraulic conductivity. This condition of the soil is said to be anisotropic. Studies that have been made indicate that the value of vertical hydraulic conductivity (Kv) of a soil is usually higher than the horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Kh) in one or two order of magnitude (Chen, 2000). Some applications in which information on hydraulic conductivity is very important are in modelling the groundwater flow and transportation of contaminants in the soil. Hydraulic conductivity data of a soil is also important for designing drainage of an area and in the construction of earth dam and levee. In addition, it is very important in tackling most of the geotechnical problems such as seepage losses, settlement calculations, and stability analyses (Odong, 2007). Factors Affecting Hydraulic Conductivity The hydraulic conductivity of a soil depends on many factors. The main factor that affecting the value of hydraulic conductivity is the average size of the pores between particles in the soil, which in turn is related to the distribution of particle sizes, particle shape and roughness, pore continuity, and soil structure (Craig,2004). In general; the bigger the average size of the pores, the higher the value of hydraulic conductivity is. The value of hydraulic conductivity of a soil that has a presence of small percentages of fines will be significantly lower than the same soil without fines. In the other hand, the presence of fissures in clay will result in a much higher value of hydraulic conductivity compared to that of unfissured clay (Craig, 2004). The range of the hydraulic conductivity value is very large. Table 1 below illustrates the range of hydraulic conductivity which differs from one soil type to another which is mainly due to the different average size of the pores between the soil particles. Table 1 Range of hydraulic conductivity values (m/s) with different soil type (Whitlow, 2001) 102 101 1 10-1 Clean gravels Very good drainage 10-2 10-3 10-4 Clean sands Gravel-sand mixtures 10-5 10-6 Very fine sands Silts and silty sands Fissured and weathered clays Good drainage Poor drainage 10-7 10-8 10-9 Clay silts (20% clay) Unfissured clays Practically impervious The hydraulic conductivity is also dependent to viscosity and density of water in which both are affected by temperature. It is therefore conclude that the value of hydraulic conductivity will then be affected by changes in temperature. Theoretically, it can be shown that for laminar flow and saturated soil condition the relationship between temperature and hydraulic conductivity: (Equation 4) Where; ÃŽÂ ³w= unit weight of water ÃŽÂ · = viscosity of water K = absolute coefficient (units m2). This value is dependent on the characteristic of the soil skeleton. Since most of the laboratory graduations were standardised at 20C, the value of hydraulic conductivity at this temperature is taken as 100% (Craig, 2004). Other value of hydraulic conductivity at 10C and 0C are 77% and 56% respectively (Craig, 2004). Hydraulic Conductivity Tests Most of the tests for measuring hydraulic conductivity measured one average value of hydraulic conductivity. However, some tests measured both the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity values to obtained more accurate estimation. There are numbers of experiments and test that can be done to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. These tests to measure the hydraulic conductivity can be done both in the laboratory and in the field. The following sections will briefly discussed the most common laboratory and in-situ tests practiced today to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. Although with all the various tests developed to measured the hydraulic conductivity, there are uncertainties arise on how the soils that being tested represent the whole soil condition at the site of interest. It is therefore a good practice to perform different tests and comparing the results obtained. Laboratory Permeability Tests One problem with laboratory tests is that the samples collected do not adequately represent the detailed conditions of the soil, e.g. fissures, joints or other characteristics in the site of interest. Even with carefully conducted tests and good sampling techniques, it is impossible to obtain a very accurate result. The results typically have a precision of about 50% or more (Coduto, 1999). It is therefore important to take this into consideration if any construction activities or contamination remediation operations to be perform at the site of interest. Constant Head Permeability Test The constant head test is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of more permeable soils such as gravels and sands which have a hydraulic conductivity value of 10-4 m/s (Whitlow, 2001). The equipments used for this test is called a constant head permeameter. A schematic illustration of this equipment is shown in Figure 2.1. The constant head permeameter was developed base on the basic idea of Darcys Law (Equation 3). The soil sample is contained in a cylinder of cross-sectional area A. Continuous water supply is let to flow from a tank to the sample to maintain a constant head. The water that flow through the sample is collected in a collection jar or container and the discharge through the sample is measured by calculating the volume of the water in the collection container over a period of time t. h Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram of Constant Head Permeameter (www.geology.sdsu.edu) The hydraulic conductivity, k of the tested soil is then calculated by: From equation 3: (Equation 5) Where; Q = the discharge through the sample (m3/s) L = the length of the sample (m) A = cross-section of the sample (m2) h = hydraulic head (m) The above diagram shows a simple setup of the constant-head permeameter. Other setup is also available which make use a pair of standpipes to measure the pore pressure and potential at two points. This is illustrated in Figure 2.2 below. Although both the setups are different, it makes used of the same concepts; Darcys Law. Figure 2.2 Alternative setup of Constant Head Permeameter (Whitlow, 2001) Falling Head Permeability Test The falling head test is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity of less permeable soils such as fine sands, silt and clay. The water flow resistance in these types of soil are very high which unable to measure accurate measurements of hydraulic conductivity if used with constant head permeameter. Undisturbed samples are required to perform laboratory test to measure the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. However, a small degree of disturbance of the sample is accepted as it is very hard to obtain a perfect undisturbed sample. An undisturbed sample can be obtained usually using a U100 sample tube or a core-cutter tube (Whitlow, 2001).The schematic illustration of the falling head test setup is shown in Figure 2.3. Figure 2.3 Laboratory setup of falling head test (Whitlow, 2001) The sample is place in a cylinder container with a wire mesh and gravel filter at both end of the cylinder. The base of the cylinder is left to stand in a water reservoir fitted with a constant level overflow. At the other end, which is the top of the cylinder, it is connected to a glass standpipe of known diameter (Whitlow, 2001). These standpipes are then filled with de-aired water and it is allow to flow through the soil sample. The height of the water in the standpipe is measured at several time intervals. The test is then repeated using standpipes of different diameters. It is a good practice to take note of the initial and final unit weight and water content of the sample to get additional information about the properties of the sample (Whitlow, 2001). The hydraulic conductivity of the sample is then calculated from the results obtained from the tests. The Darcys Law concept is still used in determining the hydraulic conductivity. The derivation of the hydraulic conductivity for the falling head test is done as follow (Whitlow, 2001). Deriving from Equation 3: With reference to Figure 2.3, if the level of the water in the standpipe fall dh in a time of dt the flow, q will be and the hydraulic gradient, i Therefore; (Equation 6) Where; a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe A = cross-sectional area of the sample When equation 6 is rearranged and integrated, the final equation to calculate the hydraulic conductivity is given as (Equation 7) Particle Size Analysis Particle size analysis is commonly used to classify the physical properties of the soil being tested. This testing method is used for both soil science and engineering purposes (Keller and Gee, 2006). In context of engineering purposes, it is commonly used to define the particle size distributions of the soil. The data obtained from the particle size distributions can then be used to estimate the pore-size classes needed in calculating the hydraulic properties of the soil such as hydraulic conductivity (Keller and Gee, 2006). There are various methods of measuring particle size analysis. Traditional methods include sieving, hydrometer and pipette. Other new techniques are also been developed; one example is laser-diffraction techniques (Eshel et al, 2004). However, particle size analysis is dependent on the technique used for defining the particle size distribution. It is therefore a common practice to do more than one method to define the particle size distribution (Keller and Gee, 2006). The results from all the different methods can then be compared to obtain more representative result. For the traditional particle size analysis methods, two separate procedures are used in order to obtain wider range of particles sizes (Head, 1980). The two procedures are sieving and sedimentation procedures (hydrometer or pipette method). Sieving is used to categorise large particle such as gravel and coarse sand. The particles can be separated into different size ranges using a series of standard sieves. For the finer particles such as silt and clay, sedimentation procedure is used (Head, 1980). Once the particle size distribution is defined from the particle size analysis, the hydraulic conductivity of the tested soil can then be estimated using a number of established empirical equations. However, the applicability of the above equations depends on the type of soil that is being tested. The following paragraphs summarised several empirical equations from previous studies (Odong, 2007). Hazens equation: (Equation 8) Kozeny-Carmans equation: (Equation 9) Breyers equation: (Equation 10) Slitchers equation: (Equation 11) Where; g = acceleration due to gravity v = kinematic viscosity n = porosity of the soil d10 = grain size in which 10% the sample is finer than The estimation of the hydraulic conductivity from these equations required information on the kinematic viscosity v and porosity n of the soil. The kinematic viscosity can be calculated by: (Equation 12) Where; = dynamic viscosity ÃŽÂ ¡ = density of water The porosity n can be calculated using the empirical relationship below: (Equation 13) Where U is the coefficient of grain uniformity and is given by: (Equation 14) The values of d60and d10 can be obtained from the particle size distribution. d60and d10 represent the grain size for which 60% and 10% of the sample respectively is finer than. In-situ Field Permeability Tests Due to the problems associated with reliability and laboratory tests, as mention in Section 2.3.1, field methods of measuring the hydraulic conductivity should be used to obtain more accurate and reliable measurements. In the field test, the soil disturbances is kept to a minimum level and they usually involves the testing of larger, more representative samples. Although, in term of cost and time, field measurement method is more expensive, it will as well provide more reliable measurement of hydraulic conductivity when dealing with a wide range of soil macro-structural characteristics. Other more economic option of field measurement can also be done. Such example is by performing borehole test, provided the pumping observation sequences are carefully planned and controlled (Whitlow, 2001). Well Pumping Tests This method is more suitable if used to measure hydraulic conductivity in homogenous coarse soil strata (Craig, 2004). The procedure involves the measurement of water that is being pumped out of a well at a constant rate, then observing the effect of these pumping activities to the drawdown of the groundwater level at other wells. The diameter of the well is normally at least 300mm and penetrates to the bottom of the stratum under test (Craig, 2004). The pumping rate and the groundwater levels in two or more monitoring wells are then recorded. The analysis of the results depends whether the aquifer is confined or unconfined. Well pumping test in a confined aquifer In confined aquifer the permeable stratum is squeezed in between two impermeable layers. This is illustrated in Figure 2.4 below. To perform the test, the pumping rate must not be too high to reduce the level in the pumping well below the top of the aquifer. The interface between the top aquifer and the overlying impermeable stratum therefore forms the top stream line (Whitlow, 2001). Figure 2.4 Pumping test in confined aquifer (Azizi, 2000) Figure 2.4 illustrates the arrangement of the pumping well and two other monitoring wells. Two assumptions were made at this point; the piezometric surface is above the upper surface of the aquifer and the hydraulic gradient is constant at a given radius (Whitlow, 2001). In steady state condition, the hydraulic gradient through an elemental cylinder with radius r from the well centres estimated as follow: where; dr = thickness h = height The area in which the water flow, A: where; D = the thickness of the aquifer Substituting the area A into the Darcys Law (Equation 4) will give; Hence: And therefore the hydraulic conductivity is: (Equation 15) In the case that the piezometric level is above ground level, where the water level inside the well inserted into the confined aquifer rises above the ground level, this scenario is called Artesian conditions (Azizi, 2000). This is illustrated in Figure 2.5. Figure 2.5 Artesian conditions (Azizi, 2000) Well pumping test in unconfined aquifer An unconfined aquifer is a free-draining surface layer that allows water to flow through the surface. The permeable stratum is not overlain by an impermeable layer. The piezometric surface is therefore in the same level of the water table. This is illustrated in Figure 2.6 below. The surface layer permeability is very high, thus allowing the water table to fluctuate up and down easily. Figure 2.6 Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer (Whitlow, 2001) Under steady state pumping conditions, the hydraulic gradient i at a given radius is assumed to be constant in a homogenous media. Homogenous unit is where the properties at any location are the same. For instance, sandstone has grain size distribution, porosity and thickness variation within a very small limit (Fetter, 2001). With reference to the arrangement of pumping well and two monitoring wells in Figure 2.6 above, the hydraulic conductivity can be determine by: Deriving from Equation 3: where; Hydraulic gradient i is And area through which the water flow, Then, Thus, hydraulic conductivity for an unconfined aquifer (after integrating the above equation) is (Equation 16) Borehole Permeameter Tests There are many borehole tests developed to determine the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. The most common in-situ borehole tests are as follow: Slug test Two-stage borehole test/ Boutwell Permeameter Variable head test In-situ constant head test Slug test is one of the cheapest in-situ field methods to determine the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. The procedure of this test involves the rapid adding or removing a slug or water into a monitoring well. The slug can be of anything that can displace the volume of the water in the well, e.g. water, plastic tubing capped at both ends, and other material of known volume and can fit into the monitoring well. The rate of rise and fall of the groundwater level is then observed until it reaches an equilibrium state. In a variable head test, a slug is introduced into the monitoring well by either adding in a measured volume of water into the well or other materials mentioned earlier. The rate of water level fall is then measured in time. This is called falling head test. The water can also be removed out from the well by using a bailer or a pump. The rate of water level rise is then measured with time. This is called a rising head test. Depending on the properties of the aquifer and the soil, and the size of the slug used the water can either returns to its original water level before the test quickly or very slowly. For instance, if the porosity of the soil is high then the water level will returns very quickly to its original water level before the test is done. There is also the constant head test. In this test the water level or head is maintained throughout the test at a given level. This is done by adjusting and measuring the flow rate of the water at intervals from start to the end of the test (Whitlow, 2001). The constant head test is said to give more accurate results, provided the water pressure is controlled so that it would not cause fracturing or other disturbance to the soil (Whitlow, 2001). There are several assumptions made for this test: The soil is homogenous, isotropic, uniformly soaked Infinite boundaries Soil does not swell when wetted The expressions use to calculate the hydraulic conductivity for the above tests depend on whether the stratum is unconfined or unconfined, the position of the bottom of the casing within the stratum and details of the drainage face in the soil (Craig, 2004). The horizontal hydraulic conductivity is tend to be measured if the soil is anisotropic with respect to permeability and if the borehole extends below the bottom of the casing. On the other hand, the vertical hydraulic conductivity is often measured if the casing penetrates below soil level in the bottom of the borehole (Craig, 2004). The following expressions are all recommended in BS 5930 to calculate the hydraulic conductivity (Whitlow, 2001). For variable head test: (Equation 17) Or, (Equation 18) For constant head test: Hvorslevs time lag analysis (Equation 19) Gibsons root-time method (Equation 20) where; A = cross-sectional area of the standpipe or borehole casing F = and intake factor dependent on conditions at the bottom of the borehole. The value for F can be obtained from Figure 6 of BS 5930 (BS 5930, 1999). T = basic time lag. Figure 7 and 8 of BS 5930 (BS 5930, 1999). H1, H2 = variable heads measured at elapsed times of t1 and t2 respectively Hc = constant head q = rate of inflow = steady state of inflow, obtained from Figure 10 of BS 5930 (BS 5930, 1999). Two-Stage Borehole (TSB) test/ Boutwell Permeameter This project involves the use of this measurement technique. It is one of the borehole permeability tests and can be used in both saturated and unsaturated region. This method is first developed by Professor Gordon P. Boutwell as a relatively quick and simple way to calculate the effectiveness of compacted soil liner construction techniques (www.erosioncontrol.com). This test method may also be utilised for compacted fills or natural deposits, above or below the water table. TSB test or Boutwell permeameter is usually used to measured the hydraulic conductivity for a low permeability media such as natural clay liner used in landfill barrier system or other material with hydraulic conductivity value less than or equal to 110-5 m/s (ASTM, 1999). This test method involves two-stage falling head test using infiltrometer installed inside the ground. The infiltrometer is basically a standpipe used to measure the fall in the water level in the borehole as the water dissipated into the soil. In both stages of the TSB test, the rate of flow in which water flow into the soil through a sealed, cased borehole is measured usually using a standpipe in a falling-head test procedure. In stage 1 of the TSB test, the bottom of the casing is in the same level with the bottom of the borehole. The casing will prevent the water to dissipate horizontally. This will ensure the maximum effect of the vertical hydraulic conductivity KV. In stage 2 of the TSB test, the borehole is extended below the bottom of the casing. This will make the water to dissipate both vertically and horizontally. Both the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity values, KV and KH respectively, can be calculated. The setup for TSB is illustrated in Figure 2.7 below. The value obtained from this test is only the limiting hydraulic conductivity values K1 and K2. The actual value of KV and KH are then calculated from these limiting values. (a) (b) Figure 2.7 Setup for two-stage borehole test (a) Stage 1 (b) Stage 2 This method covers field measurement of limiting values for both vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities of porous materials the two-stage cased borehole technique. These limiting hydraulic conductivity values are the maximum possible value for the vertical direction and the minimum possible value for the horizontal direction (ASTM, 1999). The methodology of this method will be further discussed in the following chapter. Chapter 3 Methodology 3.1 Introduction This chapter will discuss the methodology and equipments used to perform both the standard and modified setup of the TSB /Boutwell Permeameter test. This chapter will also discuss the methodology of the laboratory test for the particle size analysis. The site background on which the tests are done will also be included in this chapter. The results from both the standard and modified TSB/Boutwell tests will then be compared to that of the results obtained from the soil particle size analysis. 3.2 Site background and condition The tests were performed at the Quad of the David Kier Building, Queens University Belfast. The site can be access from the Stranmillis Road or the Malone Road. Figure 3.1 below shows the satellite image of the site. Figure 3.1 Satellite image of the site (Google Map) With reference to Figure 3.1, the site is found to be sloping downward. The site is surrounded by the David Kier building. There are three big trees grew within the quad. There is a big excavation done in the site during its construction in 1962. The soil at the site might consist of man-made fill. However, the soil below 1 or 2 metre might represent the natural soil of the site. 3.3 Field test of the standard TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test 3.3.1 Theory As mention earlier in the literature review, the TSB test or Boutwell Permeameter was used to measure the limiting values of the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity. For the case of the vertical direction, the maximum possible value is taken. On the other hand, the minimum possible value is taken for the horizontal direction. Both the two stages in the TSB test involve the measurement of the flow rate of water flow into the soil through a sealed, cased borehole. Grout was usually used for sealing the borehole and the casing used is commonly a plastic PVC pipe. In Stage 1 the casing extended to the bottom of the borehole to prevent the water dissipates into the soil horizontally. Water will only flow into the soil through the bottom of the borehole. This will enable for the measurement of the maximum effect of the vertical hydraulic conductivity (Kv). In Stage 2 of the TSB test, the length of the borehole is extended. The length of the extended borehole depends on the diameter (D) of the casing (see Figure 2.7b). Standard values that were usually used are 1.0D, 1.5D and 2.0D (Daniel, 1989). Water will now be able to flow into the soil through the side wall and bottom of the borehole. This will enable the measurement of the maximum effects of both Kv and Kh hydraulic conductivity. The standard TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test method that was done in this project will be slightly different from the standard test method in the ATM International: Designation D6391-99. More of this will be discuss in sub-section 3.4.3. However, note must be taken that the direct results obtained from the field test are not the actual value of Kv and Kh. It is only the measurement of the limiting values of K1 and K2. The actual values of Kv and Kh are then calculated from these limiting values. 3.3.2 Equipments This section will list down the equipments used during the whole TSB test. Below are all the equipments. Hand auger used to drill the borehole. Reamer used to ream the bottom of the borehole to a level plane. Borehole casing consists of watertight plastic PVC tubing. The bottom end of the casing is not capped. Dip meter to measure the head in the standpipe manually. It has a sensor at the very end of it. This sensor will detect any presence of water in the borehole. Stopwatch to measure the time taken for any fall in head in the borehole. Readable to 1 second. Datalogger This will automatically measures the heads in the borehole. 3.3.3 Procedure 3.3.3.1 Borehole and casing setup This is the most important steps in the whole procedure. Extra care must be taken to when doing this stage. The borehole is first drilled using the hand auger. The drilling procedure must be done in the direction perpendicular to the ground surface. This is to ensure that the borehole will not be drill at an angle to the ground surface. No drilling fluid was used during the drilling. The diameter of the drilled borehole was 7cm. The bottom of the borehole is then ream and smoothed using a flat auger. The bottom of the borehole must be smooth and flat to ensure proper measurement during the test. The casing is then inserted into the borehole after the borehole preparation was done. The casing used was 5.5cm in diameter. The casing was set parallel to the axis of the borehole and centered by hand. The depth from the top and the bottom of the casing was then measured. The casing is extended 5cm above the ground surface .The borehole is then sealed using a mixture of bentonite and water. The bentonite mixture extended 2-3cm to the ground surface. Extra attention was given to make sure no bentonite spill into the casing. The bentonite was then let to dry (hydration period). The hydration period take approximately atleast 12 hours. The top of the casing was covered to prevent any rainfall, surface runoff or other debris to enter the borehole. In the ASTM International, a flow system and a standpipe should be installed on top of the borehole casing. However, in this project both the flow system and standpipe will not be used. Usually the TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test was conducted to measure the hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay liner which has a very low hydraulic conductivity value. This means that water will flow very slowly into the soil. Since there will only be a very small changes of water level in the borehole for testing a compacted clay liner over a period of one hour, the standpipe will be very useful to measure this difference of water level. However, this will not heavily affect the results of the test. 3.3.3.2 Stage 1 At the start of the test, sock should be inserted into the bottom of the borehole. The purpose of the sock is to protect the soil at the bottom of the casing from disturbance when water is introduced into the casing (ASTM, 1999). However, due to the unavailability of this item, the sock was not used during the whole project. Water is then introduced into the casing slowly to prevent any damage to the soil exposed at the bottom of the casing. The borehole was filled with water until the water level is just above the ground level. This is to check whether the borehole seal is working properly. If there is water flowing out through the seal, this mean that the seal is not working properly. In this case the sealing procedure should be repeated. There are two ways how the rates of water flow into the soil can be measured; (i) manually using a dipmeter and a stopwatch and, (ii) automatically using a datalogger. The measuring procedure is similar to that is apply for falling-head test. For taking the manual reading, the initial water level was first measured using the dipmeter. Record this reading and mark it as time zero. This is when the test is started. Measurements of the water level in the casing were then taken at a given time interval (e.g. for every 5 minutes). In the case of taking the reading automatically, datalogger was used. The datalogger was first set using a computer. The datalogger has the ability to calculate the water depth in the borehole by measuring the atmospheric pressure in the borehole. It also can also measure the water temperature in the borehole. Once the test is terminated, the data in the datalogger is downloaded into a computer. Since the test was conducted on natural soil, the flow of water into the soil is expected to be higher than the test conducted on compacted clay liner. This will mean that water level in the borehole will drop quickly. The test will be terminated once the water in the borehole fully infiltrate into the soil. The data collected from this test is then use to calculate the vertical limiting conductivity (K1) of the soil. The following Hvorslevs equation is used to calculate the value of K1 (Daniel, 1989). With reference to Figure 2.7(a) K1 is calculated as follow: (Equation 21) where; d= the diameter of the standpipe D = the diameter of the borehole casing t1 = time at the start of the test t2 = time at the end of the test H1 = head at the start of the test H2 = head at the end of the test Note must be taken that since the standpipe is not used during the setup, the value of d will then be equal to the value of D. The values of log K1 is then plotted against log time. 3.3.3.3 Stage 2 The Stage 2 of this test can be perform when the Stage 1 have been done. Make sure the water in the borehole from Stage 1 has fully infiltrated into the soil. The borehole is then extended to the specified depth using a smaller diameter hand-auger. The length of the extended borehole (L) depends on the geometry factor to be used. Values that are commonly used are 1.0D, 1.5D and 2.0D; where D is the diameter of the borehole casing (Daniel, 1989). In this project, the default length of the extended borehole used is 1.5D. Water was then introduced into the borehole. The Stage 2 test is then started. It is of the same procedure as the test made in Stage 1 where the rate of water flow into the soil in the borehole is measured with respect to time. As in Stage 1, the test will be terminated once the water in the borehole fully infiltrate into the soil. With reference to Figure 2.7(b), the horizontal limiting conductivity, K2 can then be calculated using the following Hvorslevs equation (Daniel, 1989): (Equation 22) where; As in Stage 1, since no standpipe is used during the setup, the value of d will be equal to the value of D. The values of log K2 is then plotted against log time. 3.4 Field test of the modified TSB test / Boutwell Permeameter 3.4.1 Theory The basic idea of the modified TSB test/Boutwell permeameter setup was to obtain a more simple installation setup which can be easily and quickly installed in shallow boreholes for subsequent testing. The standard TSB test/Boutwell permeameter setup, although proven was effective in measuring the hydraulic conductivity of the tested soil, is considered to be of much works. This is mainly because the person who is doing the test have to drill the same borehole twice; once during the Stage 1 and once during the Stage 2. The modified setup of the TSB test/Boutwell permeameter suggested in this report involved only involved a single drilling procedure. The detail setup procedure will be discussed in section 3.5.3. 3.4.2 Equipments All the equipments used for the modified setup was similar to the standard setup. The only different equipment used in the modified setup was the borehole casing. In the standard setup, only one plastic PVC tubing (not capped both ends) was used. In the modified setup, two plastic PVC tubing (not capped both ends) of different diameter sizes were used. The diameter of the bigger pipe and smaller pipe is 5.0cm and 4.5cm respectively. Both the tubes are connected together in a way that it can be adjusted to two different lengths by sliding the smaller size diameter tube into the larger size diameter tube. The connection between the two pipes is ensured to be watertight so that water will not leak through the pipe during the testing stage. An O-Ring (Figure 3.2) was used for this purpose. The O-Ring is inserted in between the bigger size pipe and the smaller size pipe. Figure 3.2 Different sizes of O-Ring (supaseal.co.uk) 3.4.3 Procedures 3.4.3.1 Borehole and casing setup The drilling borehole and casing setup procedure in the modified setup was very similar to the standard setup. The drilling procedure must be done in the direction perpendicular to the ground surface. No drilling fluid was used during the drilling. In the modified setup, the borehole was drilled to a much deeper depth compare to the standard setup. The bottom of the borehole is then ream and smoothed using a flat auger. The bottom of the borehole must be smooth and flat to ensure proper measurement during the test. The modified casing is then inserted into the borehole after the borehole preparation was done. The casing was set parallel to the axis of the borehole and centered by hand. The maximum length of the modified casing is used. The depth from the top and the bottom of the casing is then measured. For the modified TSB/Boutwell permeameter setup, two sealing methods are used. From the bottom of the larger pipe to half of its length, a geo-synthetic clay liner is used. For the remaining half of the larger pipe length a mixture of bentonite powder and water is used. This is illustrated in Figure 3.3 below. Before inserting the bentonite into the borehole, the geo-synthetic liner must first be wetted. Once inserted the bentonite is then let to dry. The hydration period take atleast 12 hours. The top of the casing is covered to prevent any rainfall, surface runoff or other debris to enter the borehole. Figure 3.3 Schematic illustration of Stage 1 of the modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test setup Bentonite Geo-synthetic clay liner 4.5cm Ñ„ pipe 5.0cm Ñ„ pipe 3.4.3.2 Stage 1 Figure 3.3 is a schematic illustration of the Stage 1 of the modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test setup. Water is first introduced into the casing slowly to prevent any damage to the soil exposed at the bottom of the casing. Once the water inside the casing is almost full, the water depth is noted. This is the initial water depth. The Stage 1 can now be started. The idea of measuring the rate in which the water level in the casing dropped is still the same as in the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter test setup. A datalogger is used to measure the water depth in the borehole. The test is terminated once the water in the casing fully infiltrated into the soil. The data from the datalogger is then used to calculate the vertical limiting conductivity, K1 of the soil using Equation 21. The values of log K1 is then plotted against log time. 3.4.3.3 Stage 2 In stage 2 of the standard setup, the borehole is extended using the hand auger. However, in the modified setup instead of drilling the borehole, the smaller diameter tube is raised up by sliding it upward for approximately 1.5 times the diameter of the larger pipe. Since the diameter of the smaller pipe is 5.0cm, therefore the length L will be approximately 7.5cm. The smaller pipe is then slide 7.5cm upward. This will then creates a similar scenario as in the Stage 2 of the standard setup with the extension of the borehole. Figure 3.4 illustrates the Stage 2 of the modified TSB/Boutwell permeameter test setup. Figure 3.4 Schematic illustration of Stage 2 of the modified TSB/Boutwell Permeameter test setup 1.5 x 5.0cm à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€  7.5cm Geo-synthetic clay liner Bentonite 5.0cm diameter pipe 4.5cm diameter pipe Water is then introduced slowly into the casing. The initial water depth inside the casing is noted. It is the same procedure as the test made in Stage 1 where the measurement of the rate of water level dropped in the casing with respect to time is recorded. The only different factor was that both the horizontal and the vertical hydraulic conductivity will take effect. The Stage 2 test is terminated once the water has fully infiltrated into the soil. The data from the datalogger is then used to calculate the horizontal limiting conductivity, K2 of the soil using Equation 22. The values of log K2 is then plotted against log time. 3.5 Calculating horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity The horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity, Kh and Kv respectively, of the tested soil can be calculated from the limiting hydraulic conductivity values of K1 and K2. However, the anisotropy condition of soil must first be taken into account when calculating Kv and Kh by relating the ratio K2/K1 to the degree of anisotropy, m. A value of m must first be selected, where m is defined as follow: (Equation 23) The corresponding value of K2/K1 is then calculated by using the following equation: (Equation 24) Values of K2/K1 are plotted against values of m and L/D and are shown in Figure 3.5 (Daniel, 1989). The value of m that corresponds to the actual K2/K1 value can be determined from this graph. Once the value of m is obtained, the values of Kh and Kv can then be calculated using the following expressions: (Equation 25) (Equation 26) Figure 3.5 3.6 Particle Size Analysis 3.6.1 Theory Particle size analysis, as mention earlier, is the common method practiced to classify the physical properties of the tested soil. There is a very wide range of particle sizes that can be encountered in soil. The main purpose of performing the particle sieve analysis is to define the particle size distributions of the soil. In addition, a number of engineering properties such as permeability, frost, susceptibility and compressibility are related directly or indirectly to particle size characteristics (Whitlow, 2001). There are many ways in which soil analysis can be done. However, the most common and cheapest method is using the sieve analysis. In the case of coarse soil, where the fine particles have been removed or were absent, a dry sieve analysis is done. Here a representative amount of soil sample is passed through a series of standard size sieves arranged in descending order. The weight of soil retained on each individual sieve is determined and the cumulative percentage of the sub-sample weight passing each sieve is calculated. In the case of the soil sample contains fine particles, a wet sieving is first carried out to remove these. Sedimentation test using hydrometer can be done to further classify the particle size distribution in the fine particle fraction. 3.6.2 Equipments Listed below are all the equipments used during the particle sieve analysis. Hydrometer test: Hydrometer Water bath Weighing machine 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve 1000ml measuring cylinder Conical flask Stopwatch Dry sieve analysis: Series of different sizes sieve Weighing machine readable to 0.1g Automatic shaker 3.6.3 Procedures 3.6.3.1 Hydrometer test There are several steps required to be done first before actually doing the hydrometer test. The sample is first dried oven at 105-110C for a day. Once the sample is dried, take a mass of the dried sample and record the mass. The weight sample is then mixed with 100ml of sodium hexametaphosphate solution. This solution can be prepared by dissolving 33g of sodium hexametaphosphate and 7g of anhydrous sodium carbonate in distilled water to make 1L of the solution (BS 1377-2, 1990). The purpose of mixing the sample and the solution is to break down the bonding between the different types of soil in a sample. The amount of sample to be mix with the solution depends on the type of the soil. For sandy soil a mass of 100g of the sample is appropriate. For silty and clayey soil, a mass of 50g and 30g respectively are adequate (BS 1377-2, 1990). Once the sample is mixed with the solution, it is left for another day. The next step is to wet sieve the sample through a standard 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve. The sample is put into a 1000ml measuring cylinder through a 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve. The particles that passed through the 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve will be retained in the cylinder. A conical flask is used to ensure all the particles passing through the 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve will be retained in the cylinder. Water is then added into the cylinder until it reaches the 1000ml graduation mark. The cylinder is then put into the water bath and left for a day. This is to ensure no temperature variation for testing multiple samples. The particles that are retained in the 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve will be oven dried again for a day at 105-110C and will be subjected to dry sieve analysis. Before starting the hydrometer test, the sample in the cylinder is shocks thoroughly making sure no particles are left settling on the bottom of the cylinder. After shaking the cylinder, immediately put the cylinder back into the water bath. At the same instant start the stopwatch and the test is started. Put the hydrometer into the cylinder and record the hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus. Readings are taken at 0.5min, 1 min, 2min, 4min, 8min, 15min, 30min, 1hr, 2hrs, 4hrs, 8hrs and 24hrs after the start of the test. 3.6.3.2 Dry sieve analysis For the particles that are retained at the 63ÃŽÂ ¼m sieve during the wet sieve, it is subjected to dry sieve analysis. The particles are first weight after they are dried oven. Record the mass of the retained particles. The particles are then passed through a series of standard size sieve arranged in descending order. For this test sieves of size 5mm, 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 0.6mm, 0.425mm, 0.3mm, 0.212mm, 0.15mm, 0.063mm and 0.00mm are used. The particles inside the series of sieve are then shock for about 10-15mins using an automatic shaker. Record the mass of the particles that is retained on each sieve. The data from both the hydrometer test and the dry sieve analysis are then used to define the particle size distribution of the sample. 3.6.4 Calculating hydraulic conductivity The hydraulic conductivity of the soil can be calculated once the particle size distribution is defined. From the particle size distribution, take the sizes of the particle that correspond to d10 and d60. These two values are then put into Equation 14 to calculate the coefficient of grain uniformity U. The porosity n of the soil can be calculated by empirical relationship with U (Equation 13). For the purpose of comparison, different empirical equations are used to calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the tested soil. Below are all the empirical equations used: Hazens equation (Equation 8) Kozeny-Carmans equation (Equation 9) Breyers equation (Equation 10) Slitchers equation (Equation 11) The values of n, d10 and kinematic viscosity v are inserted into the above empirical equations to calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the tested soil. Chapter 4 Results 4.1 Borehole locations A total of 6 boreholes are installed during the project; three boreholes using the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter setup and three boreholes using the modified setup. For the standard setup, the boreholes are numbered BH1, BH2 and BH5. For the modified setup, the boreholes are numbered as BH3, BH4 and BH6. The locations of each borehole are shown in Figure 4.1 below. The red circles indicate the borehole with the standard setup whereas the yellow triangles indicate the boreholes with modified setup. The results from all the tests; both from field and laboratory test will be included in the following sub section. BH1 BH5 BH4 BH6 BH2 BH3 Figure 4.1 Locations of the boreholes (Google Map) 4.2 General description of the soil The maximum depth of the borehole used in the test is 1.5m. For the first 0.4m depth, the soil consists of dark brown colour soil. For the remaining of the depth to 1.5m, the soil is reddish-brown in colour predominantly sand and silt. This is as expected for man-made fill since sand is one of the most abundance soils in the on the Earth. This is common for all the boreholes on the site. Small gravels are found occasionally at different depth in all the boreholes. The average soil description of all the boreholes is shown in Figure 4.2 below. Figure 4.2 Average soil description of the site 0.4m 1.3 m 1.5 m Top soil. Dark brown in colour. Consist mainly of sand and some small gravel. Reddish-brown soil. Mixture of sand and silt. Silty sand. Reddish-brown soil. Silty sand with a very little amount of clay. 4.3 Standard TSB test/Boutwell Permeameter All the results from the field and laboratory results for the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter test will be presented in this sub-section. Refer to Appendix for the full data on the result for both field and laboratory tests. For the field TSB/Boutwell permeameter test, all the measurements were taken automatically using the datalogger.. 4.3.1 Field test The summary of all the results done with the standard setup, obtained from the field test, is given in Table 2. More detailed results from the field test is given in the following sub-section. Table 2 Summary of the field standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter test BH Test Average K1 (m/s) Average K2 (m/s) m Kh (m/s) Kv (m/s) 1 1 1.35 x 10-6 5.78 x 10-7 2 7.60 x 10-7 6.67 x 10-7 3 6.02 x 10-7 0.705 4.8 x 10-7 9.66 x10-7 2 1 9.55 x 10-6 2.42 x 10-6 2 5.06 x 10-6 2.29 x 10-6 3 5.90 x 10-6 2.53 x 10-6 4 1 2.27 x 10-7 2.27 x 10-6 2 5.97 x 10-6 2.55 x 10-6 3 5.16 x 10-6 2.29 x 10-6 4.3.1.1 Stage 1 The result of Stage 1 for all the three boreholes with the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter setup is shown in the following figure. Figure 4.3 shows the value of log K1 (m/s) plotted against time (min) for; (a) BH1, (b) BH2 and (c) BH4. One similar pattern can be seen when comparing the all the tests within one borehole with the other borehole; the result for Test 1 for each borehole is either lesser or higher than the result for Test 2 and 3 by approximately by half to one order of magnitude. However, the result for Test 2 and 3 for the three boreholes indicate a similar pattern. The values of K1, with respect to time, for both Test 2 and 3 in each borehole are approximately the same. In BH1, the duration of the test for Test 1 is much less compared to Test 2 and Test 3. However, the pattern of the three graphs indicates a similar trend. The average K1 value for BH1 was determine using the data range from t=80 to t=120 minutes for Test 1 and from t=150 to t=200 minutes for Test 2 and 3. In BH2, for the first 20 minutes, all the three tests show a similar pattern. This is shown in Figure 4.3(b). However, in Test 1, the K1 values start to increase after t=20 minutes. For Test 2 and 3, the K1 values only start to increase after t=80 minutes. The average K1 value for BH2 was determine using the data range from t=40 to t=100 minutes for Test 1 and from t=40 to t=130 minutes for Test 2 and 3. In BH4 (Figure 4.3(a)), there is a very large difference between the graphs of Test 1 and both Test 2 and 3. The graphs for Test 2 nd 3 are almost identical. The average K1 value for BH2 was determine using the data range from t=20 to t=35 minutes for Test 1 and from t=30 to t=55 minutes for both Test 2 and 3. 4.3.1.2 Stage 2 The result from Stage 2 of the standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter test is shown in Figure below. In Stage 2, the graphs for all the tests within one borehole show a similar pattern. For BH1 only two tests were conducted. Three tests were conducted for both BH2 and BH4. In BH1, both the graphs of Test 1 and 2 indicate a similar pattern. This is shown in Figure 4.4(a). There is a sharp drop of K2 value at the start of Test 2. However, the values of K2 for both tests are increasing from the start of the tests towards the end. The average K2 value for BH1 was determine using the data range from t=150 to t=225 minutes. (a) BH1 (b) BH2 (c) BH4 Figure 4.3 Standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter: log K1 against time (a) BH1 (b) BH2 (c) BH4 Figure 4.4 Standard TSB/Boutwell permeameter: log K2 against time (a) BH1 (b) BH2 (c) BH4 (a) BH1 (b) BH2 (c) BH4 Figure 4.4(b) show the results for BH2. Three tests were conducted. For the first 70 minutes of the tests, the values of K2 for all the three tests were decreasing. The values of K2 then start increasing after that time until it reach approximately the 120 minutes time. The K2values than start to decrease again after that. This can be seen for all the three tests. The average K2 value for all the three tests in BH2 was determine using the data range from t=50 to t=80 minutes. Three tests were also conducted in BH4. As can be seen in Figure 4.4(c), the graph patterns for the three tests are almost the same. However, in Test 3, there is a sharp fall of K2 value between t=60 and t=70 minutes. The average K2 value for all the three tests in BH4 was determine using the data range from t=20 to t=60 minutes. 4.3.1.3 Calculation of m, Kh and Kv From the average value of K1and K2, the value of degree of anisotropy (m) is calculated using Equation 24. Once the value of m is calculated, the value of Khand Kv using Equation 25 and 26 respectively. Table 3 below shows the values of m, Kh and Kv obtained from BH1, BH2 and BH4.

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Employee Health And Well Being at workplace

Question: Discuss about the Employee Health And Well Being at workplace. Answer: Introduction: Work is vital for all of us to survive at the various levels of life. Job satisfaction increases the standard of living besides providing meaningful focus to the life of the people (Catwright and Cooper 2014). However, work-related problems could affect the employees health physically, mentally and emotionally. The report highlights on the major issues that is responsible for affecting the employees mental health. This is caused due to workplace injury, stress, violence, job dissatisfaction, discrimination and bullying, accidental death and retirement. Retrenchment or job loss, which was unexpected also affect the health of the employees causing hardship and distress (VanGordon et al. 2014). Moreover, the report elaborates the relationship between workplace and health productivity. It is a virtuous circle, as improved working condition will lead to a better and healthy working environment that will further lead to improve in productivity of the organisation (Ganster and Rosen 2013). Figure I: The virtuous circle of productivity and health in the workplace Source: (Ganster and Rosen 2013) Major health problem in workplace: In Australia, the employees take more the average allowed sick leave, which affects the productivity of the organisation (Friedman and Kern 2014). The reason includes commonplace illnesses like flu and colds to the chronic musculoskeletal problems. The main reason for long-term absence can also be the most widespread mental health conditions of thee employees. The major health problem that an employee faces on a daily basis is: Musculoskeletal problems This is related to the problems caused by any damage, injury or disorder of the tissues or joints that is generally caused or exacerbated due to the workplace tasks (Cooper and Marshall 2013). Most of the problem related to musculoskeletal is osteoarthritis, lower and upper limbs disorder, carpal tunnel syndrome and repetitive strain injuries. This can be caused due to inadequate sleep as the blue light emitted from the laptops, iPods and iPhones can disrupt the sleeping tendency as the present melatonin level get affected (Neuhaus et al. 2014). Sitting too much or for a longer period of time besides having negative impact on the brain and reducing energy also lowers the efficiency of an individual to burn fat. Overcoming the problem: The task assigned and the provided workstation should be suitable and proper for each worker. Regular break should be introduced to lower the risk or chance of repetitive injury. The employee should be encouraged to go for a short walk during lunchtime. Changing the environment can boost the employee productivity rate (Karanika-Murray and Weyman 2013). If the employees job requires lifting heavy items, then it should be ensured that the employee undergoes proper and adequate training. Approach to tackle the issue: The employees should be encourage to digitally detox that is after 8 pm hey should not be allowed to work through digital appliance as it may affect the health and further causes eye problems. Moreover, the employee should be allowed flexibility in their work schedules so that they can allot some time for exercise during the day. Mental Health Problems Mental health related problem is a major issue for the employees leaving the organisation. Illness related to mental stress has estimated to account for majority of the entire sick leave absence. According to World Health Organisation (WHO), one in every four workers has mental health issues like anxiety, depression and very high level of stress. A supportive working environment should be created for the employees. As majority of the employees with mental problems wants to work but they are insecure or have low confidence level. In the current scenario, the employees are having a sedentary lifestyle, which causes mental stress (Riekert, Ockene and Pbert 2013). Working throughout day and night, making huge money, and taking no care for their body and health. Due to mental stress of finishing, the target assigned the employees face further problems like weight gain, obesity, eye problems and many more. Overcoming the problem: The employees stress can be managed by improving resiliency, which is possible if the employees unique strength is valued and the work is providing a meaningful contribution to the society (Pohling et al. 2016). If an employee is sick due to mental health issue, than it is ensured they are regularly communicated about their performance. Approach to tackle the issue: The employee facing mental stress should be allowed a flexible system of work to recognise their needs and challenges within the organisation. The stressed employees should be allowed proper recovery time to recharge their energy level. Proper feedback should be given to the employees. Furthermore, if an employee is not mentally healthy then they should be treated with empathy, as they are mentally stressed and surviving one day at a time. Identified Issue 3-Regular Illness: The health of the organisation is dependent on the health of its worker. Flu and cold viruses can rapidly spread in a workplace. The overall productivity of the firm is affected if the employee is encouraged to take leave due to everyday illness (Zander et al. 2015). Food poisoning is also major factor for the employees illness due to the present germs and toxins in the pantry and communal fridge of the organisation. Overcoming the problem: Good hygiene system should be encouraged in the organisation, which includes boxes of tissues, hand sanitisers and tolerant sickness policy. Employees should be encouraged to have vegetable enriched diet to reduce the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases and certain cancers (Friedman and Kern, 2014). Approaches to tackle the issue: The employees can be offered flu vaccines so that they can be immunised against the flu, which is the best insurance provided against the spreading of virus. The employees should be provided with facilities like preparing healthy meals like smoothies, chopped salad or reheating the leftovers in the work place. Moreover, to reduce the risk of regular illness, the office catering should also be properly selected and reviewed to ensure healthy options. Impact on workplace productivity: An employee suffering from mental and physical health problems have more probability of absenteeism and when present at work their productivity level is very low. The employees are slow in committing to their works and it is more likely that the employees would pursue compensation claims (Ganster and Rosen 2013). The indirect costs are also affected in a negative manner, with managers spending maximum time in dealing with the employees complex health related issues besides the replacement costs of potential staffs. Employees when feel unsupported or treated unfairly then they tend to create negative feelings for their working environment (Cooper and Marshall 2013). The unstable employees tend to act uncooperatively with his colleagues and the employer. Consultants Helped in the Research: The consultants helping in the research work were the Operations Manager of the organisation by providing the details of the employees absenteeism due to health issues and the Payroll officer was helpful in providing the annual report, which stated the injury incidences caused in the workplace was more likely similar to the previous year (Zander et al. 2015). The most common injury was strain and back injury. Importance of Productivity in the workplace: Any successful business key element is the productivity level of the employees in the workplace. Almost all the successful organisation has healthy and happy employees, which leads to the rise in productivity at workplace (Boxall and Macky 2014). Generally, there is a consensus that productivity and performance of the employees facing poor health has been diminished Productivity in the organisation leads to the good customer interaction and services through which customers are satisfied and their loyalty can be gained. When a worker is highly productive it helps in achieving the business goals. Productivity helps in boosting moral motivating the workplace culture and a better working environment (Neuhaus et al. 2014). Productivity in the workplace is very vital for future growth. Employees should be kept motivated by providing them with bonuses, pay raises and medical insurance. Conclusion: Thus from the report, it can be concluded that employees health and wellbeing is crucial for the organisational growth as it directly affects the workplace productivity. They are two sides of a same coin as if employee health is affected the productivity of the business is impacted. A workplace having lower standard of organisational culture often results in degrading the health and well-beings of the workers. Poor employees health could translate into absence of employees engagement and loss in productivity, with various indirect and direct costs getting affected due to the complex health related issues. The productivity can be boosted through the approaches like providing self-care of the employees. Employees queries and pleas should always been heard and a constructive feedback should be offered. Moreover, a clear parameter of success should be established and the employees should be offered a meaningful and challenging work. References: Boxall, P. and Macky, K., 2014. High-involvement work processes, work intensification and employee well-being.Work, Employment and Society,28(6), pp.963-984. Cartwright, S. and Cooper, C.L., 2014. Towards organizational health: Stress, positive organizational behavior, and employee well-being. InBridging occupational, organizational and public health(pp. 29-42). Springer Netherlands.. Cooper, C.L. and Marshall, J., 2013. Occupational sources of stress: A review of the literature relating to coronary heart disease and mental ill health. InFrom Stress to Wellbeing Volume 1(pp. 3-23). Palgrave Macmillan UK. Friedman, H.S. and Kern, M.L., 2014. Personality, well-being, and health.Annual review of psychology,65. Ganster, D.C. and Rosen, C.C., 2013. Work stress and employee health: A multidisciplinary review.Journal of Management,39(5), pp.1085-1122. Goetzel, R.Z., Henke, R.M., Tabrizi, M., Pelletier, K.R., Loeppke, R., Ballard, D.W., Grossmeier, J., Anderson, D.R., Yach, D., Kelly, R.K. and Serxner, S., 2014. Do workplace health promotion (wellness) programs work?.Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,56(9), pp.927-934 Karanika-Murray, M. and Weyman, A.K., 2013. Optimising workplace interventions for health and well-being: a commentary on the limitations of the public health perspective within the workplace health arena.International Journal of Workplace Health Management,6(2), pp.104-117. Neuhaus, M., Healy, G.N., Dunstan, D.W., Owen, N. and Eakin, E.G., 2014. Workplace sitting and height-adjustable workstations: a randomized controlled trial.American journal of preventive medicine,46(1), pp.30-40. Pohling, R., Buruck, G., Jungbauer, K.L. and Leiter, M.P., 2016. Work-related factors of presenteeism: The mediating role of mental and physical health.Journal of occupational health psychology,21(2), p.220. Reason, J., 2016.Managing the risks of organizational accidents. Routledge. Riekert, K.A., Ockene, J.K. and Pbert, L. eds., 2013.The handbook of health behavior change. Springer Publishing Company. Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Zangeneh, M. and Griffiths, M.D., 2014. Work-related mental health and job performance: can mindfulness help?.International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction,12(2), pp.129-137. World Health Organization, 2014.Social determinants of mental health. World Health Organization. Zander, K.K., Botzen, W.J., Oppermann, E., Kjellstrom, T. and Garnett, S.T., 2015. Heat stress causes substantial labour productivity loss in Australia.Nature Climate Change,5(7), pp.647-651.

Business Law Australia

Question: Discuss about the Business Law in Australia. Answer: In a country, several types of laws such as statue law, common law, civil law, etc. exits to govern the acts and to protect rights of the individual and business. In the same way, there is a statutory framework in Australia that ensures fairness in trading for consumers and businesses both. For conducting business operations, it is critical for the family owned seafood restaurant to comply legal laws and regulations. The owners of the organization wish to call this restaurant as Great Catch! It needs to identify the applicable laws, regulators, existing and potential legal issues for the business for understanding legal obligations and complying with legal rules (Australian Government, 2016). In Australian business law, property is classified in three forms such as real property (land, fixtures, buildings and leaseholds), personal property (personality and chattels) and intellectual property (design, patents, trademarks, etc.). On the basis of defined categories of property in the Australian business law, the name of business is a type of intellectual property. But, the intellectual property cannot complied laws and protected itself from the illegal acts and due to this; it falls into the category of intangible personal property (Latimer, 2011). Choses in action aspect of property law defines that an individual have right to sue for protecting the intellectual property of business. In accordance to this law, an individual does not have rights to take physical possession of intellectual business property. For example: Great Catch! name can be used by other firm. This law gives rights to the business owner to protect the trade name of business. But at the same time, law can protect the business and trade name in case of having registration in legal firms. In Australia, Corporation Act and business associations accept the registration of businesses names (Australian Government, 2016). For naming the seafood restaurant and gaining the legal rights, owner needs to register the name with the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) (ASIC, 2016). Equitable choses in action also give equal right to the all legal member to sue for protecting the intellectual property and to make claims. In family-owned seafood restaurant, all legal members have right to claims over the intellectual property of business. Corporations Act 2001 provides applicable laws and regulations to manage the rights related to the company title. By giving name to the seafood restaurant, the business owner would create recognition in the market. In accordance to the Australian business law, trademark is a type of intellectual property that gives unique identification to the seller in the market. Trademark can be brand name, symbol, design, etc. For protecting the intellectual property, this seafood restaurant is obliged to register name of a business as trademark under the Trade Act 1995. This would provide legal protection to the business identity. In Australia, Registrar of Trade Marks accepts trademark registrations and due to this it has authority to cont rol and excise the rights related to this area (Latimer, 2011). For getting the trademarks as business name, this seafood restaurant should contact to this legal authority. Sales of Goods Act and Australian Consumer Law (ACL) are the two major business laws create legal obligations for a firm. ACL operates in Australia-wide, whereas Sales of Good Acts application is limited to the state and territory borders. Sales of Goods Act 1923 create legal obligations on the businesses, which are operating in Sydney. In accordance to this, all variable property including consumer able goods, fixtures, crops, etc., which are sold as goods are regulated through this law (NSW Government, 2016). This seafood restaurant sale food, which is consumer good and due to this, it is accountable to oblige legislation of Sales of Goods Act. This legislation in Australia regulates sales agreement in Australia. In order to sale food in restaurant, this firm is legally obliged to include a contract, goods and price. As per this law, sale of goods to the consumer leads to the pass of ownership and due to this associated risks such as damage, loss, etc. are also passed. In case of perishable good, damage of good without the knowledge of the seller at the time of contract makes the contract void (no effect). Sales of goods legislation indicates that buyer must pay on the delivery (Latimer, 2011). The acceptance of goods by the buyer leads to the execution of sales of goods contract. This legislation is also obliged seller to give reasonable opportunity to examine the goods in accordance with the contract. This act provides three types of remedies to the buyer in case of inconsistency with the contract. Refusal for goods, action for damages, equitable remedies for certain performance is three remedies available for the buyers. The remedies can create legal issues for this seafood restaurant. For example: if this restaurant fails to deliver promised quality food to the consumers than it would incur breach of contract and due to this consumer can take action for damages (Australian Government, 2016). This will create legal issue for the restaurant. For operating effectively, this seafood restaurant needs to oblige sales of goods legislation in effective manner. Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) have authority to protect the rights of consumers effectively by enforcing Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (CCA) under the Australian Consumer Law (ACL). This legislation gives rights to the customers to claim for damages and losses. These rights are called consumer guarantee. This gives rights to the customers for replacement, repair, refund and compensation due to the damage and loss (ACCC, 2016). The seafood restaurant is also obliged to comply with this legislation to limit the legal claims and issues. Environment laws in Australia may raise legal issues for this seafood restaurant. Environment Protection Act 1993 create obligation on businesses to protect the environment from the negative impact of business activities (Australian Government, 2016). In addition to this, this law is updated by the government on regularly basis for ensuring sustainable development and due to this firm needs to review and accept the amendments. For example: Australia's seafood labelling laws may become stricter that may also raise legal issues for the company and to operate business activities effectively (AMCS, 2016). Thus, this seafood restaurant should ensure compliance of different business laws to operate successfully in Australia. In the given case, there are several legal conditions are incurred. Intellectual law and Sales of Goods Act both could be applied in the given case to determine legal obligation and remedies. In accordance to the sales of goods legislation, there are two types of conditions such as implied and expressed used to determine the obligations for the buyer and seller. Express conditions are such warranties which are described in the contract, whereas implied warranties are imposed by the laws and regulations (Australian Government, 2016). Implied condition includes Condition as to title that gives right to seller to sell the property after the passing of possession from seller to buyer. The Australian property legislation also indicates that ownership of a property can be transferred by the contract of sale. It transfers rights of using the property as well (Latimer, 2011). The other implied condition is condition as to description which implies that the good should perform as per the description of seller. This condition indicates that if buyer makes decision to purchase a good on the basis of description, which was discussed by the seller, then it implies condition of sale by description. In this case, it is implied by Australian law that the performance should be matched with the description. In the given, the married couple bought the oven machine from Tuscan Ovens Pty. Ltd on the basis of the provided description of the manager. But, the oven performed as the description of manager (NSW Government, 2016). This implied condition of sales of goods legislation of Australia gives legal rights to the married couple for suing the seller. The other implied condition is Condition as to Quality or Fitnes which also defines legal rights and obligation for the seller and buyer under the sales of goods contract. This condition implies that good should fit the reasonable purpose of the buyer if buyer expressly or by implication informed the buyer about the purpose of purchasing the good. It indicates that seller acknowledgment regarding the purpose of buyer creates legal obligation for him/her to provide product that meet the quality requirements of the buyer (South Australia Government, 2016). In the given case, this implied condition of sales of goods acts legislation explains legal conditions for the buyer. The married couple told the manager about required quality of pizza oven. Manager ensured them the new pizza oven will bake 16 pizzas at a time. But in reality, it only bakes 12 pizzas. On the basis of managers description and judgement, they made order for the oven and paid $15,000. Due to this, it caused breach of b uyers legal responsibility that gives rights to take legal actions against the seller. In accordance to the implied conditions of sales of goods legislation, the married couple may take legal actions against the Tuscan. Apart from this, The Australian Consumer Law (ACL) is national law to promote fairness in trade and consumer protection. This law of Australia also defines legal obligations for the buyer and seller. Consumer guarantees legislation of Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (CCA) under ACL simply applies that when a customer buys a product or service then it automatically gives guarantee of performance in accordance to the proposed purpose to the buyer (ACCC, 2016). It should work for which you asked for seller before the purchase and the seller responded positively. Consumers have different rights in case of any problem in product or service guarantee. The same condition occurs in the given case. The married couple bought an oven by assuring manger from the company about its ability to bake 16 pizzas. Later, they know that this oven can bake only 12 pizzas at a time due to which the buyer faces significant loss in the business. Consumer guarantees aspect of Australian consumer protection laws gives legal rights to the married couple for taking legal actions. This couple may claim three types of remedies from the seller as it provided unreliable good to them. Replacement, cancellation of sale contract and compensation for damage loss can be used by married couple to make claims on seller (Latimer, 2011). Replacement will give legal rights to buyer to ask seller to provide right oven with the certain functional capabilities. Similarly, cancellation of sales contract would make the seller eligible to get back their paid amount of the oven. Compensation of loss and damage provides legal rights to the consumer for claiming compensation for the all type of loss and damage it has faced. For example: Perfect Domino Pizza looses customers due to the failure of oven in baking 16 pizzas at a time. This affects the business sales and reputation (Australian Government, 2016) . By using this remedy, the married couple has legal rights to get monetary compensation from the seller for the loss of sales and reputation. Apart from this, intellectual property law of Australia give legal rights to the seller to take legal actions due to an infringement of his registered name. The married couple decided to call the purchased oven machine as MB Oven rather than Tuscan XX, which was its real registered name. This creates legal rights of seller to claim for infringing the registered name and use it for their own purpose (Latimer, 2011). But at the same time, the law creates obligations on selling the product by the trade name of other business. The married couple indented to use this oven for own purpose that may reduce legal claim on them at the certain extent. But, Sales of Goods Act 1923 and Australian Consumer Law give rights to the married couple to take legal actions against the Tuscan Ovens Pty. Ltd as manager of this company breached the implied conditions of sales of good contract and consumer guarantee (ACCC, 2016). Due to this, the married couple of the given case can make claims on the seller. References Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (2016) Consumer guarantees. [Online]. Available at: https://www.accc.gov.au/consumers/consumer-rights-guarantees/consumer-guarantees [Accessed: 2 June 2016]. Australian Government (2016) 7. Property Rights. [Online]. Available at: https://www.alrc.gov.au/publications/definitions-property-0 [Accessed: 2 June 2016]. Australian Government (2016) Consumer Protection. [Online]. Available at: https://www.australia.gov.au/information-and-services/public-safety-and-law/consumer-protection [Accessed: 2 June 2016]. Australian Marine Conservation Society (2016) Sustainable Seafood. [Online]. Available at: https://www.marineconservation.org.au/pages/sustainable-seafood.html [Accessed: 2 June 2016]. Australian Trade and Investment Commission (2016) Australian business and environment laws. [Online]. Available at: https://www.austrade.gov.au/International/Invest/Guide-to-investing/Running-a-business/Understanding-Australian-business-regulation/Australian-business-and-environment-laws [Accessed: 2 June 2016]. Latimer, P., 2012. Australian Business Law 2012. CCH Australia Limited. NSW Government (2016) SALE OF GOODS ACT 1923 - SECT 19. [Online]. Available at: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/soga1923128/s19.html [Accessed: 2 June 2016]. South Australia Government (2016) Implied conditions. [Online]. Available at: https://www.lawhandbook.sa.gov.au/ch10s03s01s03.php [Accessed